Points of discussion
- Attachment theory
- Attachment styles: secure, insecure and disorganized
- Parent-child relationships
- Contact, schedules and triangulation
- Parental alienating behaviors
- In essence...
Introduction
What is attachment theory?
The attachment theory is acknowledged as a leading theoretical framework for understanding the individual’s personality and social relationships, primarily developed by John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth (Bretherton, 2013).
Bowlby’s theory originated from observing the generational impact of attachment patterns while working with delinquent children at the Child Guidance Clinic in London (Bowlby & Ainsworth, 2013). Bowlby saw a connection between maternal deprivation in early childhood and the child’s later personality development.
Suggesting...
Bowlby (1969) suggested that attachment develops when a child experiences a sense of safety and security, stemming from their innate need for closeness to their primary caregiver.
Because...
The attachment between the child and caregiver forms as a result of the caregiver’s presence and responsiveness to the child’s needs (Bowlby & Ainsworth, 2013).
Indicating...
Attachments formed during early development influence the child’s emotional development, impacting personal relationships and overall psychological well-being (Ainsworth & Marvin, 1995). The attachment process emphasizes the importance of proximity and availability of the caregiver to the child, with lasting effects on the child’s development and functioning throughout life.
Why...
Secure relationships with caregivers influence the child’s responses to stress and coping style and contribute to an individual’s self-esteem and socio-emotional health, influencing their development and future relationships throughout life (Beijers et al., 2017).
Based on...
Bowlby (1991) believed that the quality of caregiving experiences during the early years shapes the internal representation of the attachment, known as the internal working model, which serves as an individual’s emotional framework.
The internal working model (Bowlby, 1969) influences the children’s perception of themselves and their social world, which forms the foundation of their interpersonal and intrapersonal functioning, leading to enduring socio-emotional relationships.
For example...
For example, in the infant and adult relationship (Waters et al., 2002), an available and responsive caregiver provides a safe haven and encourages the child to explore their world, forming the building blocks for lifelong emotional attachments.
Attachment styles
The attachment styles presented by Ainsworth represent the early experiences with primary caregivers (Bowlby & Ainsworth, 2013) and the internal working model for how the child interacts with their world.
Three attachment styles were established through the researchers’ work.
Three attachment styles
- Secure atachment
- Anxious/ambivalent (insecure attachment)
- Avoident attachment (Insecure attachment)
Fourth attachment style
- Disorganized/disoriented (insecure attachment)
A fourth attachment style, disorganized/disoriented, also known as avoidant/fearful attachment, was added in 1990, characterized by children who may interpret their parents as alarming, disorienting, and frightening (Newton, 2008).
Discussions and examples
Discussions in this section will define each style and explore how these categories are applied to parent-child relationships and long-term behavioral outcomes.
Secure attachment
The caregiver’s response to the child when they cry, smile, and other cues reflecting their emotions, e.g., fear, frustration, and joy, contributes to secure or insecure patterns of the attachment behavioral system.
Suggesting...
Ainsworth postulated that a secure attachment evolves when a caregiver is warm, consistent, and attentive to the child’s needs, establishing a secure internal working model; going forward, the child will seek similar reactions and interactions with others.
Because...
A securely attached child could experience healthier relationships and have a positive sense of self.
Indicating...
This sense of security expands into an attachment that may positively impact the child’s future relationships (D’Rozario & Pilkington, 2022).
For example...
A child who feels threatened may engage in signaling behaviors such as crying, pursuing, and clinging to the caregiver.
Why....
A responsive caregiver encourages the child to feel secure, promoting a sense of curiosity and enabling them to explore their environment.
Insecure attachment
Similar to the secure attachment, an insecure attachment style reflects an individual’s mental representations of self (Bowlby & Ainsworth, 2013).
Anxious/ambivalent
An anxious/ambivalent attachment style emerges when a child’s emotional needs are constantly disregarded (Fatemi et al., 2022), characterized by fear of abandonment.
Suggesting...
The caregiver’s unpredictable or neglectful response could lead to the child developing low self-esteem and a constant need for validation, resulting in the individual resorting to attention-seeking behaviors.
Because...
An insecure attachment style inhibits the child’s willingness to explore their environment, which can carry over to social and personal interactions (Bowlby, 1969).
Indicating...
As they mature, the individual may exhibit emotional dependency and engage in unhealthy relationships while still seeking attention and validation.
For example...
Insecure/ambivalent attachment styles are associated with hypervigilance and abandonment, exemplified by excessive neediness in relationships (Shaver et al., 2005).
Anxious/avoidant
The anxious/avoidant attachment style emerges when the child’s emotional needs are not met, leading the child to refrain from expressing their emotions because they believe they will not receive a response, fostering feelings of independence at a developmental stage when children are appropriately dependent on their caregivers.
Suggesting...
Individuals learn that depending on others results in disappointment, with self-reliance becoming a defense mechanism to cope with relationships and form emotional attachments.
Indicating...
Children who are anxious/avoidant may be unaffected when a parent is unavailable (Newton, 2008), suggesting these are protective behaviors.
For example...
For example, individuals with anxious/avoidant attachment styles may experience anxiety regarding the availability of others (Mikulincer et al., 2002) and present as emotionally distant (Rees, 2005).
Disorganized-disoriented
The fourth attachment style, known as disorganized/disoriented, is characterized by a “breakdown or disintegration of an attachment strategy” (Borelli et al., 2010) since the individual’s internal working model is not fully developed (Blizard, 2003), leading to a disorganized state.
Suggesting...
Some researchers suggest that this category may indicate situational accessibility to the caregiver (Borelli et al., 2010).
Because...
The caretaker may be available at times but unavailable at others, dealing with their own unresolved trauma or life stresses and unable to understand the child’s emotional needs (Borelli et al., 2010).
Indicating...
This could contribute to the development of disorganized/disoriented characteristics (Granqvist et al., 2017).
For example...
For example, the individual may struggle to establish a consistent pattern of seeking comfort, affecting the child’s ability to form a secure attachment.
Note:
Importantly, disruptions in secure attachment style, such as anxious/avoidant and anxious/ambivalent, may co-occur with a disorganized/disoriented attachment (Lyons-Ruth et al., 1991).
In essence...
The attachment styles introduced by Ainsworth illustrate the initial interactions with primary caregivers (Bowlby & Ainsworth, 2013) providing the building blocks for lifelong emotional attachments.
Research...
For example, researchers Rostad and Whitaker (2016) found a strong association between a child’s sense of closeness with their parents and the closeness they feel with their spouse as an adult (Rostad & Whitaker, 2016).
